Agronomy

20 pages, 4317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Sustainability in Pelargonium Nursery Management: Scientific Exploration of an Innovative Prolonged Cold Storage System for Cuttings

by Bożena Szewczyk-Taranek, Marcin Rapacz, Sylwester Smoleń, Joanna Pitala, Paweł Marcinkowski and Tomasz Wojewodzic

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 907; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040907 (registering DOI) - 6 Apr 2025

Abstract

Cold storage of pelargonium cuttings addresses the issue of nonoverlapping production seasons in Central Europe, where cuttings are harvested from stock plants in December, but rooting begins in mid-February/March. Here, we show an innovative system for cuttings storage using nature-based solutions. We compared [...] Read more.

Cold storage of pelargonium cuttings addresses the issue of nonoverlapping production seasons in Central Europe, where cuttings are harvested from stock plants in December, but rooting begins in mid-February/March. Here, we show an innovative system for cuttings storage using nature-based solutions. We compared post-delivery storage of unrooted cuttings in paperpots maintained in greenhouses (8/6 °C day/night) to standard rooting immediately after delivery. Key factors included genotype (Pelargonium zonale, P. peltatum, and hybrids), four delivery weeks (48–51), two growing seasons (2021 and 2022), and storage duration (up to 4 weeks). Genotype strongly influenced cold storage tolerance, with P. peltatum enduring storage for up to 4 weeks without significant loss of rooting efficiency, unlike P. zonale. The success of storage depended on stock plants’ quality and nutritional status: higher nitrogen content in 2022 cuttings compared to 2021 was associated with reduced rooting in P. zonale and hybrids. Neither delivery timing nor residual ethephon affected rooting outcomes after storage. This study demonstrates that storing pelargonium cuttings for up to two weeks using this method preserves quality while optimizing production efficiency by reducing nursery space, water, fertilizer, and pesticide use. This shift in production practices reduces per-unit costs and enhances the economic viability of bedding young plant producers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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15 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptome Insights into Resistance Mechanisms Against Soybean Mosaic Virus Strain SC4 in Soybean

by Muhammad Muzzafar Raza, Huiying Jia, Shengyu Gu, Junyi Gai and Kai Li

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040906 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

Soybean, an economically valuable oil and protein crop, is vulnerable to numerous biotic stresses throughout its growth period. Soybean mosaic virus (SMV), a destructive plant pathogen, induces substantial yield reduction and seed quality deterioration globally. In China, a total of 22 distinct SMV [...] Read more.

Soybean, an economically valuable oil and protein crop, is vulnerable to numerous biotic stresses throughout its growth period. Soybean mosaic virus (SMV), a destructive plant pathogen, induces substantial yield reduction and seed quality deterioration globally. In China, a total of 22 distinct SMV strains have been documented, with SMV-SC4 being a widely spread strain. The Chinese cultivar Kefeng-1 (KF) is resistant to this strain. To investigate the resistance mechanism, transcriptional analysis was performed at 0, 6, 24, and 48 h post-inoculation of SC4 in KF (Resistant) and NN1138-2 (NN) (Susceptible). A total of 1201 core differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified as active ones against SC4 infection, with most originating from the resistant cultivar at the early infection stages. Gene ontology enrichment analysis indicated that the DEGs directly involved in signal transduction and those related to plant stress response contributed to KF resistance indirectly, including protein phosphorylation, protein kinase activity, oxidation–reduction, oxidoreductase activity, catalytic activity, metal ion transport, and response to auxin. A total of 27 genes in “Signal transduction” with most of them were disease resistance conserved domains, 52 genes active in oxidoreductase activity involving in removing ROS from SMV attack, and 8 genes in “Response to auxin”, a phytohormone that plays a role in biotic stress response in addition to growth and development. These genes expressed more differentially in the resistant versus susceptible cultivar. Our findings provide insights into the molecular networks related to soybean response to SMV, which may be relevant in understanding soybean resistance against the viral infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Legume Crop Protection)

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20 pages, 6060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Drainage Technology on Waterlogging Reduction and Rice Yield in Mid-Lower Reaches of Yangtze River

by Bowei Qi, Shenjiao Yang, Dongwei Li, Dandan Qin, Xingfei Zheng, Jianlin Hu, Xinguo Zhou and Hongquan Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040905 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

As extreme rainfall events become more frequent, leading to increased waterlogging hazards, it is crucial to explore various drainage methods that can alleviate the adverse effects of waterlogging on crop growth, thus addressing challenges related to global food security. Field experiments were carried [...] Read more.

As extreme rainfall events become more frequent, leading to increased waterlogging hazards, it is crucial to explore various drainage methods that can alleviate the adverse effects of waterlogging on crop growth, thus addressing challenges related to global food security. Field experiments were carried out to evaluate the impacts of different drainage technologies on waterlogging mitigation, rice growth, dry matter accumulation, and yield. The experimental setup included varying straw blind ditch spacings (2, 3, 4, and 5 m) and subsurface pipe drainage spacings (6, 9, and 12 m), with surface drainage serving as the control (CK). The findings revealed that, in comparison to pipe drainage treatments, blind ditch treatments enhanced subsurface drainage volume by 15.1%. Regarding groundwater levels and soil moisture, the soil moisture in the 0–90 cm soil layer and groundwater levels under the blind ditch treatments were 11.3% and 6.1% lower than those under the CK as well as 22.0% and 23.9% lower than the pipe drainage treatments, respectively. Subsurface drainage treatments led to significant improvements in rice yield, with blind ditch and pipe drainage treatments increasing the yield by 8.0% and 6.0% compared to the CK. Rice yields initially increased before decreasing as burial spacing reduced. The S3 treatment resulted in yield increases of 14.4%, 8.6%, and 10.7% over the S2, S4, and S5 treatments, respectively. The G9 treatment produced 3.6% and 10.4% higher yields compared to the G6 and G12 treatments. The highest rice yield, 7.501 Mg·ha⁻¹, was achieved with a blind ditch spacing of 3 m. Compared to the S4 and S5 treatments, the yield per hectare for the S3 treatment was higher by 0.592 Mg and 0.726 Mg, while the input cost was higher by CNY 3038 and 4560, respectively. Path analysis indicated that root biomass made the largest direct contribution (0.517) to the increase in rice yield. Subsurface drainage contributed to the regulation of soil moisture, reducing leaf biomass while increasing stem biomass, which enabled the blind ditch treatments to produce optimal rice yield. These results provide a scientific basis for agricultural drainage in waterlogged areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Water Management and Non-Point Source Contamination Mitigation)

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15 pages, 4535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selecting Fore and Succeeding Crops to Construct a Double-Cropping System That Increases the Forage Yields of Alpine Pastoral Areas on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

by Zhiqiang Yu, Yuxin Ren, Wenhua Du and Yongqiang Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040904 (registering DOI) - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Double-cropping systems in which two kinds of crops are harvested per year can elevate forage yields significantly. This is the first report on a double-cropping system in the northeastern margin of alpine pastoral areas on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau with an elevation of 3500 [...] Read more.

Double-cropping systems in which two kinds of crops are harvested per year can elevate forage yields significantly. This is the first report on a double-cropping system in the northeastern margin of alpine pastoral areas on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau with an elevation of 3500 m. In this experiment, eight triticale genotypes, including five varieties (‘Gannong No. 2’, ‘Gannong No. 3’, ‘Gannong No. 4’, ‘Gannong No. 7’, and ‘Zangsi No. 1’), and three lines (C16, C23, and C25) were used as the fore crops, with the four succeeding crops being 50% of triticale mixed with 50% of forage pea (B1), 50% of triticale mixed with 50% of common vetch, 50% of oat mixed with 50% of forage pea, and 50% of oat mixed with 50% of common vetch. Over 2 years (2020–2021), among the fore crops, ‘Gannong No. 4’ had the highest average hay yield (9.00 t·ha⁻¹), crude protein content (114.97 mg·g⁻¹), and relative feeding value (91.77), as well as the lowest average neutral detergent fiber content (598.17 mg·g⁻¹). Among the succeeding crops, B1 had the highest average hay yield (11.45 t·ha⁻¹) and nutritional quality. Among the interactions between the fore and succeeding crops, the highest hay yield (21.72 t·ha⁻¹), crude protein content (262.22 mg·g⁻¹), and relative feeding value (219.34) were obtained when ‘Gannong No. 4’ was doubled with B1. The results provide a theoretical basis for carrying out a double-cropping system in the alpine pastoral areas on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau, and this has very important implications for crop production in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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18 pages, 6586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy and Economics of Different Soil Sampling Grid Sizes for Site-Specific Nutrient Management in Southeastern USA

by Simerjeet Virk, Matthew Tucker, Glendon Harris, Amanda Smith, Matthew Levi and Jason Lessl

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040903 (registering DOI) - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Precision soil sampling on larger grid sizes (≥2.0 ha) is a common practice to reduce the number of soil samples and associated sampling costs. A study was conducted to evaluate the influence of different grid sizes on the depiction of spatial nutrient variability [...] Read more.

Precision soil sampling on larger grid sizes (≥2.0 ha) is a common practice to reduce the number of soil samples and associated sampling costs. A study was conducted to evaluate the influence of different grid sizes on the depiction of spatial nutrient variability and their influence on the accuracy of variable-rate fertilizer application and total application costs. Soil sampling was conducted in nine agricultural fields using grid sizes of 0.4, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 ha, and the resulting variable-rate prescription maps for lime, P, and K were spatially analyzed and compared with a reference map (generated from high-density soil sampling; approximately 2.5 samples per hectare) to determine the amount of under-, on-target, and over-application that would occur within each field. An economic analysis was conducted including the soil sampling costs, soil analysis costs, and nutrient costs to determine the effect of grid size on total application costs. Soil sampling on a 0.4 ha grid size had the best performance in depicting the spatial variability of soil pH, P, and K within the fields, and exhibited the highest application accuracy for the variable-rate prescription maps. The general trend was that the application accuracy decreased with an increase in grid size, with the potential for the under- and over-application of nutrients significantly increasing at the larger grid sizes of ≥2.0 ha. The total application cost varied among the fields as it was largely influenced by the amount of under- and over-application associated with each grid size. In most fields, the total application costs for a 0.4 ha grid size were lower or comparable to other grid sizes. In some fields, the larger grid sizes exhibited lower application costs but at the expense of reduced application accuracy. Overall, the results suggest that the smaller grid sizes of ≤1.0 ha are optimal for soil sampling in agricultural fields to ensure accurate and cost-effective variable-rate applications for site-specific nutrient management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fertility Management for Higher Crop Productivity)

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18 pages, 3911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Solution Selection Modulates Growth Patterns and Leaf Elemental Accumulation in Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Grown

by Jiaqing Li, Yingjian Zhu, Zhenwu Wei, Haowen Chen, Chuanjie Wang, Kai Cao and Xian Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040902 (registering DOI) - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

While forage grasses in southern China exhibit yield and nutritional advantages, the impact of nutrient solutions on alfalfa (Medicago sativa BC₄) growth and elemental accumulation remains understudied. We conducted a pot-based controlled substrate cultivation trial using a nitrogen-poor substrate to [...] Read more.

While forage grasses in southern China exhibit yield and nutritional advantages, the impact of nutrient solutions on alfalfa (Medicago sativa BC₄) growth and elemental accumulation remains understudied. We conducted a pot-based controlled substrate cultivation trial using a nitrogen-poor substrate to compare four treatments: MS, Hoagland, B5 nutrient solutions, and RO water (control). From the V₁ to R₁ stages, the plant height was monitored continuously, with leaf dimensions and soluble proteins (Bradford method) measured at R₁. ICP-MS quantified macro elements (Na⁺, K⁺, and Mg²⁺) and microelements (Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺, and Zn²⁺). The growth rates followed the order: MS > Hoagland > RO water > B5. Both the MS and Hoagland solutions significantly increased the leaf length at the R₁ stage (p < 0.001 vs control), with Hoagland showing the greatest leaf expansion. The soluble protein content decreased significantly in all groups (p < 0.05) except MS-treated plants. An elemental analysis revealed treatment-specific accumulation patterns, most notably 1.17-fold higher Fe and 1.48-fold higher Mn in the MS group versus control (p < 0.001). Magnesium levels showed no significant differences among treatments. These results demonstrate the MS nutrient solution’s superior efficacy in enhancing the alfalfa growth parameters (height and leaf size) while maintaining the soluble protein content and promoting Fe/Mn accumulation. The findings provide empirical evidence for optimizing alfalfa cultivation in a nitrogen-deficient soil-based mix substrate through nutrient solution selection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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16 pages, 2182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yield, Stability, and Adaptability of Hybrid Japonica Rice Varieties in the East Coast of China

by Rujia Chen, Gaobo Wang, Junjie Yu, Yue Lu, Tianyun Tao, Zhichao Wang, Yu Hua, Nian Li, Hanyao Wang, Ahmed Gharib, Yong Zhou, Yang Xu, Pengcheng Li, Chenwu Xu and Zefeng Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 901; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040901 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

The high yield potential and stability of hybrid japonica rice varieties are crucial for sustainable agricultural development and food security. Rice varieties must undergo rigorous testing through multi-site regional trials before being introduced to the market in China. The assessment of these regional [...] Read more.

The high yield potential and stability of hybrid japonica rice varieties are crucial for sustainable agricultural development and food security. Rice varieties must undergo rigorous testing through multi-site regional trials before being introduced to the market in China. The assessment of these regional trials is essential for guiding rice breeding. In this study, we evaluated the yield performance of 13 hybrid japonica rice genotypes (g1–g13) across six regional trial sites (e1–e6) in Jiangsu province, China. Variance analysis revealed that genotype (G), environment (E), and genotype-by-environment (G × E) interactions significantly influenced the yield of hybrid japonica rice varieties. The effects of G × E interactions on the yield potential and stability of these tested rice varieties were further analyzed using Genotype plus Genotype-by-Environment interaction (GGE) biplot and additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) model analyses. The results reveal that Zhegengyou2035 (g4) and Changyou20-2 (g3) exhibited superior yield potential and stability, while Huazhongyou9413 (g12) exhibited broad adaptability. Additionally, the assessment of discrimination and representativeness among regional trial sites revealed that the Wujin Rice Research Institute (e6) served as an optimal testing location. Our findings identify the most suitable rice varieties for the area and assess their potential as initial material in the selection processes for breeding new varieties. Additionally, this work contributes to the strategic selection of optimal testing locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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17 pages, 5959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Apple Pose Estimation Based on SCH-YOLO11s Segmentation

by Jinxing Niu, Mingbo Bi and Qingyuan Yu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040900 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Determination of apple attitude is a key technology for apple picking robots to achieve automatic picking. This paper proposes a joint estimation method for apple pose estimation by segmenting apples and their calyx basin and designs an improved YOLO11s segmentation network (SCH-YOLO11s) to [...] Read more.

Determination of apple attitude is a key technology for apple picking robots to achieve automatic picking. This paper proposes a joint estimation method for apple pose estimation by segmenting apples and their calyx basin and designs an improved YOLO11s segmentation network (SCH-YOLO11s) to address challenges posed by small, darker calyx basin targets and image degradation. The SCH-YOLO11s network combines the Simple Attention Module (SimAM) with C3k2 into the C3k2_SimAM module, the Conv in the backbone network is replaced with the CMUNeXt Block, and the Histogram Transformer Block (HTB) is added to the C2PSA module. The trained model segmented the apple and the calyx basin and acquired the point cloud data of the segmented region. The center of the apple point cloud was determined by least squares sphere fitting, and the center of the calyx basin point cloud was calculated using the mean value method. The vector connecting these two centers was defined as the apple’s pose. The SCH-YOLO11s network achieves a segmentation AP50 of 97.1% and 94.7% on the apple and calyx basin, and the mAP is improved by 1.8% and 2.7% compared to the unimproved version, respectively. Real apple pose data were obtained for experimental comparison with the estimated pose data. The average error angle of the real pose data compared with the estimated data is 12.3 degrees. The algorithm’s runtime per image is approximately 0.08 s. It shows that the proposed pose estimation scheme has the capability to be applied in a real apple picking robot system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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23 pages, 3439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of the Photosynthetic Characteristics and Yield of Wheat by Regulating the Proportion of Nitrogen Fertilizer Base and Topdressing

by Yaoyuan Zhang, Haiqi Wang, Rongrong Wang, Fangfang He, Guiying Jiang and Jianwei Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040899 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study developed a nitrogen management framework that simultaneously addresses photosynthetic limitations and water scarcity challenges, providing a scalable solution for sustainable wheat production in arid farming systems. Focusing on Xinjiang’s arid region, we investigated how different ratios of basal to topdressed nitrogen [...] Read more.

This study developed a nitrogen management framework that simultaneously addresses photosynthetic limitations and water scarcity challenges, providing a scalable solution for sustainable wheat production in arid farming systems. Focusing on Xinjiang’s arid region, we investigated how different ratios of basal to topdressed nitrogen fertilization affect photosynthetic mechanisms in drip-irrigated spring wheat. We implemented a split-plot design during the 2020–2021 growing seasons, using two wheat cultivars as main plots: strong-gluten Xinchun 37 (XC37) and medium-gluten Xinchun 6 (XC6). The subplots consisted of five N application treatments: N00: (no nitrogen application, control), N28 (base fertilizer 20%, top dressing 80%, and so on), N37 (3:7), N46 (4:6), and N55 (5:5). The vast majority of indicators performed best under N37 treatment. And LAI, RuBPC (ribulose-1,5-diphosphate ribulose carboxylase) activity, net photosynthetic rate (P_n), yield, and its composition were higher than the rest of the treatments by 0.21~31.75%, 6.94~25.21%, 7.42~40.78%, 0.86~25.44%, and 0.44~12.02%. And intercellular CO₂, concentration (C_i) was lower than other treatments by 7.63~50.60%. Yield showed q highly significant positive correlation with P_n, G_s, T_r, Φ_PSⅡ , and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, but a negative correlation with C_i. Stepwise regression analysis showed that LAI, P_n, C_i, and RuBPC activity had a significant impact on yield and its compositions. In addition, all index performances of XC37 were better than XC6. Under drip irrigation in arid zones, allocating 30% basal + 70% topdressed N optimally enhances photosynthetic capacity and yield formation in spring wheat, offering a practical pathway for sustainable intensification in water-limited agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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21 pages, 6395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Comprehensive Regulation of Light Intensity and Photoperiod on Growth and Yield of Virus-Free Potato Under the Same Daily Light Integral

by Song Chen, Dingcheng Wang, Jiating Lin and Zhigang Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040898 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

The effects of the combination of the light intensity and photoperiod on the yield of virus-free potato and resource utilization are still poorly understood, especially under the same daily light integral. Here, we tested the responses of virus-free potato in terms of plant [...] Read more.

The effects of the combination of the light intensity and photoperiod on the yield of virus-free potato and resource utilization are still poorly understood, especially under the same daily light integral. Here, we tested the responses of virus-free potato in terms of plant growth, photosynthesis, and the tuber yield to four light intensity and photoperiod combinations (T1, 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 16.5 h; T2, 300 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 11 h; T3, 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 8.25 h; T4, 500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 6.6 h) under the same daily light integral. The tuber number and dry weight increased with the shortening of the photoperiod. The smaller number of tubers under the T1 treatment was due to the poor transport of photosynthates in the leaves and the uneven distribution of photosynthates in the tubers during the tuber formation stage. Changes in the light intensity and photoperiod combination did not significantly impact the distribution ratio of photosynthates between plants and tubers at the tuber growth stage; they only caused adjustments in the total amount of photosynthates. In addition, the photoinhibition under T1 was caused by the long photoperiod and that under T4 was caused by the high light intensity. However, the higher content of carotene in the T4 treatment alleviated the adverse effects of photoinhibition on the tuber yield. The results showed that the number and growth of tubers were extremely negatively correlated with shoot growth and extremely positively correlated with the accumulation rate of photosynthates in the plant and the tubers per day. In terms of energy consumption and the cost of the light source, we recommend the light intensity and photoperiod combinations of 300 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 11 h or 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and 8.25 h to cultivate virus-free potato in plant factories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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16 pages, 4435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Harnessing Vitamin C Industrial Byproducts for Sustainable Agriculture: Improved Soil Quality and Maize Production in Degraded Semi-Arid Farmlands

by Haotian Cheng, Hao Sun, Weichao Yang, Mingfu Gao, Xinhua Zhao and Hui Xu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040897 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Vitamin C industrial residue after evaporation (RAE) acts as both a rapid-release carbon source and a microbial activity promoter. A two-year maize field experiment assessed the effectiveness of RAE in improving soil quality in degraded semi-arid regions. The RAE formulation was applied via [...] Read more.

Vitamin C industrial residue after evaporation (RAE) acts as both a rapid-release carbon source and a microbial activity promoter. A two-year maize field experiment assessed the effectiveness of RAE in improving soil quality in degraded semi-arid regions. The RAE formulation was applied via drip irrigation during the sixth true leaf unfolded (BBCH 24), fourteenth true leaf unfolded (BBCH 38), and middle of grain filling (BBCH 66) stages, which consisted of three treatments: (1) untreated control (CK), (2) low RAE rate (LR: 150 L/ha), and (3) high RAE rate (HR: 300 L/ha). Soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, maize nutrient accumulations, and yields were comprehensively analyzed at the maize maturity stage. RAE application significantly improved the following soil nutrients: dissolved organic carbon (10.40–25.92%), ammonium nitrogen (14.04–70.67%), nitrate nitrogen (14.80–78.63%), and available phosphorus (11.79–42.55%). Soil enzyme activities also increased: sucrase (12.38–30.25%), amidase (1.95–25.69%), peptidase (0.56–48.79%), β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase (3.11–9.48%), protease (17.41–226.29%), and acid phosphatase (8.73–60.04%). These changes enhanced maize nitrogen (17.63–40.73%) and phosphorus (20.09–42.11%) uptake, increasing yield by 7.12–13.46%. Statistical analysis showed strong correlations between yields and nutrient accumulations (r = 0.82, p < 0.01), particularly phosphorus (r = 0.91, p < 0.001). RAE enhances crop productivity in degraded agricultural systems by improving soil nutrient availability and plant assimilation, making it a viable alternative to conventional fertilizers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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17 pages, 2851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Complexed, Nanosized, and Conventional Zinc Sources Applied at Varying Rates to an Acidic Mediterranean Soil on Two Successive Lettuce Crops

by Marina de Francisco, Raquel Ortiz, Ana Obrador, Demetrio Gonzalez, Gabriel Gascó and Patricia Almendros

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040896 (registering DOI) - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the current application and ageing effects of various Zn sources on acidic Mediterranean soil. Two successive lettuce crops were grown in soil fertilised with 0, 15, 30, 60, and 140 mg Zn kg⁻¹ using commercial ZnO nanoparticles, Zn complex, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the current application and ageing effects of various Zn sources on acidic Mediterranean soil. Two successive lettuce crops were grown in soil fertilised with 0, 15, 30, 60, and 140 mg Zn kg⁻¹ using commercial ZnO nanoparticles, Zn complex, and Zn sulphate. Plant growth, Zn biofortification, dietary implications, human health, and the soil Zn status were evaluated. Zinc bioavailability was influenced by the source, application rate, and chemical ageing. The bioavailability of Zn in the soil increased from 4.60 to 66.7 compared to the control treatment. Zinc applied in the form of ZnSO₄ was the most bioavailable form in the first year of cultivation. Advanced specialty fertilisers such as ZnO nanoparticles and Zn-lignosulfonate, along with the conventional fertiliser ZnSO₄, demonstrated a residual effect allowing effective Zn uptake by plants in the second crop. Zn concentrations in lettuce leaves were 3.33–34.6 times higher than the control treatment. Application of 30 mg Zn kg⁻¹ and higher of commercial ZnO nanoparticles, Zn complex, and Zn sulphate heptahydrate resulted in some toxicity. Higher application rates of these sources may pose a potential risk to the population, as indicated by the health risk index. These Zn sources represent a promising alternative for enhancing plant growth and providing a sustained release of Zn in several successive crops, making them a potential alternative to conventional fertilisers. Their unique properties can optimise nutrient management strategies and promote sustainable crop production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Sustainable Fertilization: Efficiency and Environmental Challenges)

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25 pages, 5808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Mineralization Degree and Sodium Adsorption Ratio on the Rhizosphere Bacterial Community and Soil Nutrients of Upland Cotton Under Saline Water Irrigation

by Chenfan Zhang, Guang Yang, Huifeng Ning, Yucai Xie, Yinping Song and Jinglei Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040895 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

In global drought-prone cotton-growing (Gossypium hirsutum L.) areas, saline water irrigation has become a key strategy to alleviate the shortage of freshwater resources. Against this backdrop, the synergistic effect of mineralization degree (MD) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) on the rhizosphere microecological [...] Read more.

In global drought-prone cotton-growing (Gossypium hirsutum L.) areas, saline water irrigation has become a key strategy to alleviate the shortage of freshwater resources. Against this backdrop, the synergistic effect of mineralization degree (MD) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) on the rhizosphere microecological regulation mechanism remains unclear. To address this issue, this study constructed an experimental framework of the interaction between MD and SAR, aiming to explore their effects on the bacterial community structure in the rhizosphere of cotton and the soil environment. The soil type in the study area is saline–sodic sandy loam. In the experimental design, three MD levels (3 g/L, 5 g/L, 7 g/L) were set, and under each mineralization condition, three SAR levels (10 (mmol/L)^1/2, 15 (mmol/L)^1/2, 20 (mmol/L)^1/2) were arranged. In addition, local freshwater irrigation was used as the control group (CG), resulting in a total of 10 treatment schemes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of varying levels of irrigation water MD and SAR on the structure of bacterial communities in cotton rhizosphere soil and the soil environment. The results indicated that saline water irrigation could enhance the diversity and richness of the bacterial community in the rhizosphere soil of cotton and alter its community structure. Under treatment with the MD of 3 g/L and the SAR of 10 (mmol/L)^1/2, the diversity and richness of the bacterial community in the cotton rhizosphere reached their peak levels. Compared with the CG, the Chao1 index significantly increased by 260 units, while the Shannon index increased by 0.464. When the MD does not exceed 5 g/L, reducing SAR can enhance the diversity and network stability of the rhizosphere bacterial community, thereby synergistically promoting the accumulation of soil nutrients. The key soil environmental factors driving changes in the rhizosphere bacterial community structure mainly include soil moisture content, total nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and total organic carbon. The concentrations of total nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium significantly increased by 19.66%, 26.10%, 89.41%, and 49.76% respectively (p < 0.05). This study provides a theoretical basis for sustainable irrigation and microbial regulation strategies in saline–alkali cotton fields at the theoretical level, and offers a new perspective for revealing the mutual feedback mechanism between bacterial community assembly and soil environment under saline conditions. From a practical perspective, this research offers valuable hands-on experience for optimizing agricultural ecological management in saline–alkali sandy loam soils, thereby contributing to the sustainable development of agriculture on such lands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Fertilizer Regulation Theory and Technology in Crops)

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21 pages, 5625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Cropland Function Trade-Off in Highly Urbanized Areas: Insights from the Yangtze River Delta Region in China

by Jieyi Tao, Jinhe Zhang, Ping Dong, Yuqi Lu, Xiaobin Ma, Zipeng Zhang, Yingjia Dong and Peijia Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040894 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Exploring the characteristics of changes in cropland function trade-off and the influencing factors in highly urbanized areas can promote the synergistic development of urbanization and fine cropland management. Taking the Yangtze River Delta region as the study area, this paper developed a cropland [...] Read more.

Exploring the characteristics of changes in cropland function trade-off and the influencing factors in highly urbanized areas can promote the synergistic development of urbanization and fine cropland management. Taking the Yangtze River Delta region as the study area, this paper developed a cropland function evaluation system from the production–ecology–living perspective, identified the spatial and temporal changes in cropland function trade-offs through Wavelet analysis and Root mean square error, and explored the driving factors of the trade-offs by using GeoDetector. The results indicated the following: (1) The cropland function in the Yangtze River Delta region has undergone a transition from a single production function to a composite function integrating ecology and life in conjunction with urbanization. The trade-offs between cropland functions are weakened, and the rate of decline from 2010 to 2023 is significantly higher than that from 2000 to 2010, and the characterization of cropland in different types of cities is revealed. (2) The turning points of cropland function trade-off changes in cities of different scales diverge, with the inflection points of small and medium-sized cities and large cities shrinking toward the center (decreasing from 42–48 km to 30–36 km), and metropolises showing an obvious trend of outward expansion (expanding from 42 km to 60 km). (3) The influence of natural and socioeconomic factors on cropland function trade-off intensity generally increases over time, with socioeconomic factors increasingly becoming significant drivers of the trade-off intensities. It is recommended that the study area focus on developing cropland characterization in different types of cities in the future, and continue to improve the degree of sharing the integration of profits from cropland functions, so as to promote optimal development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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23 pages, 5520 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multivariate Insight into Soil Organic Matter Dynamics in Subarctic Abandoned Farmland by the Chronosequence Approach

by Timur Nizamutdinov, Sizhong Yang, Xiaodong Wu, Vladislav Gurzhiy and Evgeny Abakumov

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040893 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Agricultural land abandonment is a widespread phenomenon found in many regions of the world. There are many studies on post-agricultural changes in temperate, arid, semi-arid regions, etc., but studies of such soils in boreal or Arctic conditions are rare. Our study aims to [...] Read more.

Agricultural land abandonment is a widespread phenomenon found in many regions of the world. There are many studies on post-agricultural changes in temperate, arid, semi-arid regions, etc., but studies of such soils in boreal or Arctic conditions are rare. Our study aims to fill the gaps in research on the processes of post-agricultural soil transformation, with a focus on the harsh climatic conditions of the Arctic and Subarctic regions. Parameters of soil organic matter (SOM) are largely reflected in the quality of soil, and this study investigates the dynamics of SOM properties in Subarctic agricultural soils in process of post-agrogenic transformation and long-term fertilization. Using a chronosequence approach (0–25 years of abandonment) and a reference site with over 90 years of fertilization, we performed elemental (CHN-O) analysis, solid-state ¹³C NMR spectroscopy of SOM, PXRD of soil and parent material, and multivariate statistical analysis to identify the connections between SOM composition and other soil properties. The results revealed transient increases in soil organic carbon (SOC) during early abandonment (5–10 years; 3.75–4.03%), followed by significant declines after 25 years (2.15–2.27%), driven by mineralization in quartz-dominated soils lacking reactive minerals for organo-mineral stabilization. The reference site (the Yamal Agricultural Station) maintained stable SOC (3.58–3.83%) through long-term organic inputs, compensating for poor mineralogical protection. ¹³C NMR spectroscopy highlighted shifts from labile alkyl-C (40.88% in active fields) to oxidized O-alkyl-C (21.6% in late abandonment) and lignin-derived aryl-C (15.88% at middle abandonment), reflecting microbial processing and humification. Freeze–thaw cycles and quartz dominance mineralogy exacerbated SOM vulnerability, while fertilization sustained alkyl-C (39.61%) and balanced C:N (19–20) ratios. Principal Component Analysis linked SOC loss to declining nutrient retention and showed SOM to be reliant on physical occlusion and biochemical recalcitrance, both vulnerable to Subarctic freeze–thaw cycles that disrupt aggregates. These findings underscore the fragility of SOM in Subarctic agroecosystems, emphasizing the necessity of organic amendments to counteract limitations of poor mineralogical composition and climatic stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter and Tillage)

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13 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer Spraying Time on Source–Sink Nitrogen Metabolism and Seed Oil Quality of Paeonia ostii ‘Fengdan’

by Nannan Zhang, Xingqiao Liu, Xiaolei Ma, Yabing Zhang, Duoduo Wang, Dingding Zuo, Chengwei Song and Xiaogai Hou

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040892 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

The spraying time of nitrogen fertilizer is a key factor to consider when fertilizing with an intelligent micro-sprinkler irrigation system. This study aims to investigate the impact of nitrogen fertilizer spraying time on the seed oil quality of tree peony, with the expectation [...] Read more.

The spraying time of nitrogen fertilizer is a key factor to consider when fertilizing with an intelligent micro-sprinkler irrigation system. This study aims to investigate the impact of nitrogen fertilizer spraying time on the seed oil quality of tree peony, with the expectation of providing theoretical support for the application of intelligent micro-sprinkler irrigation systems in the production of tree peony. In 2022 and 2023, foliar nitrogen application was conducted on Paeonia ostii ‘Fengdan’ utilizing an intelligent micro-spray irrigation system, with four distinct nitrogen fertilizer spraying times (3:00–4:00, 7:00–8:00, 14:00–15:00, and 19:00–20:00). Based on this, the study assessed nitrogen metabolism indicators in leaves and seeds at various growth stages and the fatty acid composition of seed oil in Paeonia ostii ‘Fengdan’. The results revealed that foliar nitrogen application between 14:00 and 15:00 significantly enhanced the levels of free amino acids (FAA), nitrate reductase (NR), glutamine synthetase (GS), and glutamate synthase (GOGAT) activity in both leaves and seeds. Furthermore, the ratio of α-linolenic acid in the seed oil was significantly increased. Correlation analysis demonstrated a positive or highly significant positive correlation between the levels of nitrogen metabolism indicators and the ratio of unsaturated fatty acids. In conclusion, foliar nitrogen application between 14:00 and 15:00 significantly enhances the FAA content and the activity of nitrogen metabolism enzymes within the leaves and seeds and promotes the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in seed oil. This study contributes to the efficient and high-quality cultivation of tree peony. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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19 pages, 8137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

YOLOv8-Orah: An Improved Model for Postharvest Orah Mandarin (Citrus reticulata cv. Orah) Surface Defect Detection

by Hongda Li, Xiangyu Wang, Yifan Bu, Chiaka Chibuike David and Xueyong Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 891; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040891 - 2 Apr 2025

Abstract

Orah mandarin (Citrus reticulata cv. Orah) lacks systematic grading treatment after harvesting, resulting in a high fresh fruit loss rate and affecting the economic value. There are many drawbacks to traditional manual and mechanical sorting. Therefore, intelligent, rapid, non-destructive surface defect detection [...] Read more.

Orah mandarin (Citrus reticulata cv. Orah) lacks systematic grading treatment after harvesting, resulting in a high fresh fruit loss rate and affecting the economic value. There are many drawbacks to traditional manual and mechanical sorting. Therefore, intelligent, rapid, non-destructive surface defect detection technology is significant. In addition to the fruit size, surface defects (e.g., canker, sunburn) are another important criterion for grading fruit. To overcome the challenges in detecting surface defects of orah mandarin, like multi-scale features, significant size differences, and slow convergence speed, we propose the YOLOv8-Orah detection model based on YOLOv8n. Path Aggregation Network (PANet) is replaced by a Focusing Diffusion Pyramid Network (FDPN), and the Diffusion and Spatial Interaction (DASI) module is introduced to effectively fuse and enhance features of different scales and improve detection accuracy. The Bottleneck in the C2f module is replaced by the Hybrid Dilated Residual Attention Block (HDRAB) module to reduce missed detections and false detections. We also introduce the NWD-CIoU joint bounding box loss to accelerate the convergence speed and improve the detection accuracy of small defects. The experimental results show that the improved YOLOv8-Orah model performs well in terms of precision, recall, and average precision, reaching 81.9%, 78.8%, and 84.2%, respectively. Compared with the original YOLOv8n, the improved model increased by 4.0%, 1.7%, and 3.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, the parameter count decreased by 7.76%. Compared with other mainstream models, YOLOv8-Orah achieves a good balance between detection accuracy and computational efficiency. The results technically support defect detection in postharvest orah mandarin and real-time grading of their quality. Meanwhile, it can promote the intelligent development of the bergamot industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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28 pages, 11204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Meloidogyne incognita and Fusarium oxysporum on Growth, Physiological, Biochemical, and Root Morphology in Tomato Hybrids Cultivars

by Aatika Sikandar, Yixue Mo, Bochang Chen, Yasar Nishat and Haiyan Wu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040890 - 2 Apr 2025

Abstract

Soil-borne pathogens can severely reduce vegetable crop output and quality. A disease complex may develop when many soil-borne pathogens attack a crop simultaneously, which can cause more damage. The soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) and the nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Mi) significantly reduce global [...] Read more.

Soil-borne pathogens can severely reduce vegetable crop output and quality. A disease complex may develop when many soil-borne pathogens attack a crop simultaneously, which can cause more damage. The soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) and the nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Mi) significantly reduce global tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) yields. After a soil-borne pathogenic infection, plants undergo numerous changes. Therefore, we conducted the present study to examine the impact of soil-borne pathogens Fo and Mi on the growth, physiology, biochemical, and root morphology of tomato cultivars Zhongza 09 (ZZ09) and Gailiang Maofen 802 (GLMFA and GLMFB) at 10, 20, and 30 days after-inoculation (DAI). The present study revealed that combined infections adversely damaged plant growth, photosynthetic pigmentation, gas exchange, biochemistry, and root morphology. The plant growth reduction in GLMFA and GLMFB was greater than in ZZ09. The chlorophyll content and photosynthetic indices declined dramatically; however, ZZ09 declined less than GLMFA and GLMFB plants. In GLMFA and GLMFB plants, the combined infection of Fo and Mi lowered plant-defense-related antioxidant activity compared to their single infection or control. ZZ09’s antioxidants were greatly up-regulated, indicating pathogen tolerance. ZZ09 had significantly lower gall and wilt disease indices than GLMFA and GLMFB. Moreover, the microscopic examination of roots showed that Fo and Mi infection damaged GLMFA and GLMFB more than ZZ09 plants. Thus, combined infection induced severe root damage, reduced plant growth, reduced antioxidants, and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production compared to single inoculation. However, the ZZ09 cultivar exhibited significantly stronger tolerance to combined infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nematode Diseases and Their Management in Crop Plants)

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17 pages, 9147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Heterogeneous Image Registration Model for an Apple Orchard

by Dongfu Huang and Liqun Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040889 - 2 Apr 2025

Abstract

The current image registration models have problems such as low feature point matching accuracy, high memory consumption, and significant computational complexity in heterogeneous image registration, especially in complex environments. In this context, significant differences in lighting and leaf occlusion in orchards can result [...] Read more.

The current image registration models have problems such as low feature point matching accuracy, high memory consumption, and significant computational complexity in heterogeneous image registration, especially in complex environments. In this context, significant differences in lighting and leaf occlusion in orchards can result in inaccurate feature extraction during heterogeneous image registration. To address these issues, this study proposes an AD-ResSug model for heterogeneous image registration. First, a VGG16 network was included as the encoder in the feature point encoder system, and the positional encoding was embedded into the network. This enabled us to better understand the spatial relationships between feature points. The addition of residual structures to the feature point encoder aimed to solve the gradient diffusion problem and enhance the flexibility and scalability of the architecture. Then, we used the Sinkhorn AutoDiff algorithm to iteratively optimize and solve the optimal transmission problem, achieving optimal matching between feature points. Finally, we carried out network pruning and compression operations to minimize parameters and computation cost while maintaining the model’s performance. This new AD-ResSug model uses evaluation indicators such as peak signal-to-noise ratio and root mean square error as well as registration efficiency. The proposed method achieved robust and efficient registration performance, verified through experimental results and quantitative comparisons of processing color with ToF images captured using heterogeneous cameras in natural apple orchards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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