Pathogens

14 pages, 1103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

One Health Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 in Non-Human Primates and Small Mammals in Minas Gerais, Brazil

by Pedro Augusto Almeida-Souza, Thamires Gabriele Macedo Silva, Gabriele Barbosa Penha, Thaynara de Jesus Teixeira, Ramon Oliveira-Silva, Iago Alves Celestino, Maria Eduarda Gonçalves-dos-Santos, Cirilo Henrique de Oliveira, Alice dos Santos Nunes Ferreira, Emerson Márcio Gusmão, Vinícius de Oliveira Ottone, Danilo Simonini-Teixeira, Fabrício Souza Campos, Paulo Michel Roehe, Leonardo Camilo de Oliveira, Mauro Martins Teixeira, Filipe Vieira Santos de Abreu and Danilo Bretas de Oliveira

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040356 (registering DOI) - 6 Apr 2025

Abstract

Although the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic primarily affected the human population, the virus has also been detected in various animal species worldwide, raising concerns about its potential to establish new animal reservoirs. This study aimed to investigate the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in non-human primates (NHPs) [...] Read more.

Although the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic primarily affected the human population, the virus has also been detected in various animal species worldwide, raising concerns about its potential to establish new animal reservoirs. This study aimed to investigate the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in non-human primates (NHPs) and synanthropic small mammals (SSMs) in the Jequitinhonha Valley and Northern Minas Gerais, Brazil. Between October 2021 and October 2023, 119 animals were sampled, 82 NHPs and 37 SSMs, across 22 municipalities. A total of 342 biological samples—including oral and nasal swabs, lungs, livers, spleens, blood, and feces—were collected and analyzed using RT-qPCR, while 37 serum samples were submitted to neutralization tests. Despite the diversity of sampled species, habitats, and biological materials, no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection or specific antibodies was detected in any of the individuals tested. The results suggest that NHPs and SSMs in these regions did not act as reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 during the study period. This finding is particularly relevant given the high synanthropy of species such as Callithrix penicillata (black-tufted marmoset) and Rattus rattus (black rat), which frequently interact with human populations. Our study underscores the importance of integrating animal, human, and environmental health perspectives under a One Health framework to monitor emerging zoonotic threats. By providing baseline data on SARS-CoV-2 dynamics in wildlife, we emphasize the need for ongoing ecological and epidemiological surveillance to assess potential spillover events and their implications for biodiversity and public health in Brazil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases in Wild Animals)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 3206 KiB

Open AccessReview

From Microbial Ecology to Clinical Challenges: The Respiratory Microbiome’s Role in Antibiotic Resistance

by Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu, Mihaela Magdalena Mitache, Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu, Mariana Carmen Chifiriuc, Mara Madalina Mihai, Monica Marilena Tantu, Ana Catalina Tantu, Loredana Gabriela Popa, Georgiana Alexandra Grigore, Roxana-Elena Cristian, Mircea Ioan Popa and Corneliu Ovidiu Vrancianu

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040355 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

Antibiotic resistance represents a growing public health threat, with airborne drug-resistant strains being especially alarming due to their ease of transmission and association with severe respiratory infections. The respiratory microbiome plays a pivotal role in maintaining respiratory health, influencing the dynamics of antibiotic [...] Read more.

Antibiotic resistance represents a growing public health threat, with airborne drug-resistant strains being especially alarming due to their ease of transmission and association with severe respiratory infections. The respiratory microbiome plays a pivotal role in maintaining respiratory health, influencing the dynamics of antibiotic resistance among airborne pathogenic microorganisms. In this context, this review proposes the exploration of the complex interplay between the respiratory microbiota and antimicrobial resistance, highlighting the implications of microbiome diversity in health and disease. Moreover, strategies to mitigate antibiotic resistance, including stewardship programs, alternatives to traditional antibiotics, probiotics, microbiota restoration techniques, and nanotechnology-based therapeutic interventions, are critically presented, setting an updated framework of current management options. Therefore, through a better understanding of respiratory microbiome roles in antibiotic resistance, alongside emerging therapeutic strategies, this paper aims to shed light on how the global health challenges posed by multi-drug-resistant pathogens can be addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resistance, Virulence and Social Behavior as Leading Factors of Microbial Pathogens Fitness)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Echinococcus multilocularis Calreticulin Inhibits Lectin Pathway of Complement Activation by Directly Binding to Mannose-Binding Lectin

by Yuxiao Shao, Meng Xia, Yinghui Song, Yan Yan, Xiaofang Dong, Haoran Zong, Bin Zhan, Yanhai Wang and Limei Zhao

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040354 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

Alveolar Echinococcosis (AE) is a serious zoonotic disease caused by infection of Echinococcus multilocularis larvae. To survive within the host, E. multilocularis has developed a complex immune evasion mechanism including the inhibition of complement activation. This study focused on a calreticulin secreted by [...] Read more.

Alveolar Echinococcosis (AE) is a serious zoonotic disease caused by infection of Echinococcus multilocularis larvae. To survive within the host, E. multilocularis has developed a complex immune evasion mechanism including the inhibition of complement activation. This study focused on a calreticulin secreted by E. multilocularis (EmCRT) and its role in binding ability to human MBL and inhibiting MBL-mannose-mediated lectin pathway of complement activation. Results demonstrated the binding of recombinant EmCRT protein to both external and natural MBL in serum and the subsequent inhibition of MBL-mannose-initiated lectin pathway reflected by the reduced formation of complement intermediate products C3b and C4b. Fragment mapping determined that the MBL binding site was located within the S-domain of EmCRT. Combining with its role in inhibiting C1q-initiated classical complement activation in our previous study, the inhibition of MBL-mannose-initiated lectin pathway identified in this study suggests EmCRT plays an important role in the immune evasion of E. multilocularis alveolar larvae against host complement attack as a survival strategy within human tissue. This study supports the approach of using EmCRT as a good candidate for vaccine and drug development against E. multilocularis infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunity and Immunoregulation in Helminth Infections)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 8434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Effects of Vegetative-Propagation-Mediated TuMV-ZR Transmission on Yield, Quality, and Stress Resistance in Pseudostellaria heterophylla

by Li Gu, Sheng Qian, Shuting Yao, Jiaxin Wu, Lianghong Wang, Jing Mu, Yankun Wang, Jianming Wang, Zhongyi Zhang and Mingjie Li

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040353 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax (P. heterophylla) was a valued traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Previous studies have shown that P. heterophylla TuMV spreads during the vegetative propagation cycle using tuberous roots as carriers. However, the transmission mechanism of TuMV in P. heterophylla [...] Read more.

Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax (P. heterophylla) was a valued traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Previous studies have shown that P. heterophylla TuMV spreads during the vegetative propagation cycle using tuberous roots as carriers. However, the transmission mechanism of TuMV in P. heterophylla and its effects on host growth remain to be elucidated. In this study, virus-free P. heterophylla culture seedlings were infected with control, TuMV-ZR, and TuMV-ZR-EGFP, thereby resulting in the initial infection cycle of IF1 (TIF1, TEIF1) and control NIF1, and used these roots to propagate the subsequent infection cycle IF2 (TIF2, TEIF2) and control NIF2. The transmission of TuMV-ZR seedlings was tracked by EGFP signal, and their yield, quality, and resistance were analyzed simultaneously in the critical growth period of the plants. The results indicated that TuMV-ZR accumulated in the tuberous roots of IF1 plants, subsequently migrated to IF2 during seedling growth, and was re-stored in IF2 tuberous roots, thereby forming a simple virus transmission cycle. Meanwhile, the tuberous roots of IF1 and IF2 P. heterophylla showed lower fresh weight, dry weight, soluble sugar, and saponin levels compared to NIF1 and NIF2, respectively. TuMV caused a significant reduction in chlorophyll synthesis in IF1 and IF2 P. heterophylla, resulting in impairment to their photosynthetic organs and efficiency. The measurement of stress resistance in IF1 and IF2 P. heterophylla revealed that continuous viral infection disrupted antioxidant enzyme activity, increased the content of MDA, enhanced the activity of PAL, and elevated the levels of intracellular osmotic substances in both propagation cycles. The findings indicated that the accumulation of the TuMV-ZR virus during two successive vegetative propagation cycles induced physiological stress, impaired photosynthesis, and caused progressive yield and quality decline with each cycle. This study systematically examined the impact of TuMV-ZR persistence during vegetative propagation on key physiological and biochemical indices in P. heterophylla, providing critical data to clarify vegetative-propagation-mediated germplasm degradation. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Borrelia burgdorferi Strain-Specific Differences in Mouse Infectivity and Pathology

by Annabelle Pfeifle, Rose Anderson-Duvall, Levi A. Tamming, Wanyue Zhang, Sathya N. Thulasi Raman, Caroline Gravel, Jianguo Wu, Heather Coatsworth, Maarten J. Voordouw, Xu Zhang, Michael J. W. Johnston, Wangxue Chen, Simon Sauve, Lisheng Wang and Xuguang Li

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040352 (registering DOI) - 5 Apr 2025

Abstract

Lyme disease (LD), caused by infection with the tick-borne bacteria, Borrelia burgdorferi, is associated with a wide array of symptoms in human patients. Variations in clinical manifestations are thought to be influenced by genetic differences among B. burgdorferi strains. In this study, [...] Read more.

Lyme disease (LD), caused by infection with the tick-borne bacteria, Borrelia burgdorferi, is associated with a wide array of symptoms in human patients. Variations in clinical manifestations are thought to be influenced by genetic differences among B. burgdorferi strains. In this study, we evaluated the infectivity, tissue bacterial load, pathology, and immunogenicity of five strains of B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (297 Ah130, Bb16-54, B31-A3, Bb16-126, JD1) in female C3H/HeN mice at three infectious doses (10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶ spirochetes). We found that strains Bb16-126 and JD1 were the most infectious, resulting in 100% infection across all the tested doses. Strain Bb16-126 caused the highest bacterial burden in the heart tissue and significant carditis, whereas JD1 exhibited the lowest spirochete load in the heart and minimal carditis. In comparison, strain B31-A3 demonstrated the highest abundance in the tibiotarsal joint. Infection with all the strains induced severe lymph node hyperplasia, with JD1 producing the greatest increase in cellularity. Using a diagnostic C6 peptide ELISA, all the strains induced significant anti-C6 IgM and IgG antibody titers at 14 days post-infection; however, strain B31-A3 elicited the highest anti-C6 IgM titers. Our findings demonstrate the importance of strain diversity in shaping B. burgdorferi pathogenesis in a mouse model and provide insights for developing strain-specific diagnostic, therapeutic, and vaccine strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promising Role of Fruitless Wolfberry Bud Tea in Combating Nakaseomyces glabratus Resistance

by Liping Zhang, Zhiyan Ma, Xuezhang Zhou, Ziping Zhang and Tao Wu

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040351 (registering DOI) - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

The rising antifungal resistance in Nakaseomyces glabratus, especially to azole drugs like fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole, presents a significant clinical challenge. Plant-derived compounds with synergistic antifungal effects offer a promising solution. Fruitless wolfberry bud tea, rich in flavonoids from a Lycium barbarum [...] Read more.

The rising antifungal resistance in Nakaseomyces glabratus, especially to azole drugs like fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole, presents a significant clinical challenge. Plant-derived compounds with synergistic antifungal effects offer a promising solution. Fruitless wolfberry bud tea, rich in flavonoids from a Lycium barbarum L. hybrid, shows potential but is underexplored in antifungal therapies. This study assessed FWE’s antifungal efficacy alone and with azoles against resistant N. glabratus isolates, exploring mechanisms like efflux pump inhibition and gene expression changes. A total of 52 clinical isolates were tested. Fruitless wolfberry bud tea was methanol-extracted (FWE) and lyophilized. Antifungal susceptibility was evaluated using broth microdilution, and synergistic effects were analyzed with checkerboard assays. Growth inhibition, rhodamine 6G efflux, and qRT-PCR for resistance-related genes were conducted. FWE demonstrated inhibitory activity with MICs ranging from 16 to 32 μg/mL. When combined with ITR or VRC, synergistic or additive effects were observed, reducing MICs by 2–8-fold. FWE + VRC exhibited synergy (FICI ≤ 0.5) in 50% of isolates, while FWE + ITR showed synergy in 37.5%. Efflux pump activity, measured by rhodamine 6G, significantly decreased in combination groups (11.4–14.6%) compared to monotherapy (17.3–17.5%). qRT-PCR indicated downregulation of CgCDR1, CgERG11, and CgPDR1 in FWE-treated Cg 1 isolate, with greater suppression in combination groups. FWE might boost the bacteriostatic impact of azole antifungal drugs by blocking efflux pumps and altering the expression of resistance genes. This study identifies FWE as a potent adjuvant to overcome cross-resistance, supporting its inclusion in antifungal strategies. Further research to identify bioactive compounds in FWE and in vivo validation is necessary for clinical application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 1276 KiB

Open AccessReview

Signaling Pathways Regulating Dimorphism in Medically Relevant Fungal Species

by Uriel Ramírez-Sotelo, Manuela Gómez-Gaviria and Héctor M. Mora-Montes

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040350 (registering DOI) - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Pathogenic fungi that exhibit the ability to alternate between hyphal and yeast morphology in response to environmental stimuli are considered dimorphic. Under saprobic conditions, some fungi exist as filamentous hyphae, producing conidia. When conidia are inhaled by mammals or traumatically inoculated, body temperature [...] Read more.

Pathogenic fungi that exhibit the ability to alternate between hyphal and yeast morphology in response to environmental stimuli are considered dimorphic. Under saprobic conditions, some fungi exist as filamentous hyphae, producing conidia. When conidia are inhaled by mammals or traumatically inoculated, body temperature (37 °C) triggers dimorphism into yeast cells. This shift promotes fungal dissemination and immune evasion. Some fungal pathogens undergo dimorphism in the contrary way, forming pseudohyphae and hyphae within the host. While temperature is a major driver of dimorphism, other factors, including CO₂ concentration, pH, nitrogen sources, and quorum-sensing molecules, also contribute to morphological shifts. This morphological transition is associated with increased expression of virulence factors that aid in adhesion, colonization, and immune evasion. Candida albicans is a fungus that is commonly found as a commensal on human mucous membranes but has the potential to be an opportunistic fungal pathogen of immunocompromised patients. C. albicans exhibits a dimorphic change from the yeast form to the hyphal form when it becomes established as a pathogen. In contrast, Histoplasma capsulatum is an environmental dimorphic fungus where human infection begins when conidia or hyphal fragments of the fungus are inhaled into the alveoli, where the dimorphic change to yeast occurs, this being the morphology associated with its pathogenic phase. This review examines the main signaling pathways that have been mostly related to fungal dimorphism, using as a basis the information available in the literature on H. capsulatum and C. albicans because these fungi have been widely studied for the morphological transition from hypha to yeast and from yeast to hypha, respectively. In addition, we have included the reported findings of these signaling pathways associated with the dimorphism of other pathogenic fungi, such as Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Sporothrix schenckii, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Blastomyces dermatitis. Understanding these pathways is essential for advancing therapeutic approaches against systemic fungal infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rare Fungal Infection Studies)

16 pages, 3621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Schmallenberg Virus Disease in Sardinia (Italy) After the First Epidemic Episode in 2012

by Cipriano Foxi, Davide Pintus, Susanna Zinellu, Simonetta Macciocu, Pier Paolo Angioi, Anna Maria Sechi, Mariangela Stefania Fiori, Anna Ladu, Graziella Puggioni, Stefano Denti, Maria Luisa Sanna, Maria Paola Madrau, Giuseppe Satta, Annalisa Oggiano, Ciriaco Ligios and Silvia Dei Giudici

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040349 - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Schmallenberg virus (SBV), an Orthobunyavirus transmitted by Culicoides, causes congenital malformations and mild symptoms, such as fever, reduced appetite, decreased milk production, and occasional diarrhea, in ruminants. First detected in Central Europe in 2011, SBV spread across the continent, reaching Sardinia (Italy) [...] Read more.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV), an Orthobunyavirus transmitted by Culicoides, causes congenital malformations and mild symptoms, such as fever, reduced appetite, decreased milk production, and occasional diarrhea, in ruminants. First detected in Central Europe in 2011, SBV spread across the continent, reaching Sardinia (Italy) in late 2012. This study evaluates the occurrence of SBV infections in Sardinian sheep from 2013 to 2024 by anatomo-pathological, virological, serological, and entomological data. The results suggest the presence of SBV infections in a continuous enzootic status over the years, without the cyclic waves observed in other countries, likely due to the unique sheep breeding management in Sardinia. Seroprevalence rates in the years 2022 and 2024 varied between 16.40% (C.I. = 12.28–20.52) and 21.53% (C.I. = 17.15–25.91) without significant differences between the two years analyzed. SBV was predominantly detected in C. imicola and C. newsteadi populations, while C. cataneii and C. sahariensis were identified as potential new vectors. Additionally, S- and M-segment sequences were obtained from two SBV isolates, S-sequences from a sample detected in 2020, and 21 archived cDNA samples from 2012. The S-segments showed high similarity among themselves and the reference strains, while the M sequences were significantly different, although potential artifacts from fetal samples must be considered. Overall, the results suggest widespread enzootic SBV circulation in Sardinia over the past decade, with a very low frequency of malformations in newly born sheep offspring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Antibacterial Effects of Plant Extracts and Essential Oils Against Drug-Resistant Bacteria of Clinical Interest

by Hoda Helene Shahin, Moomen Baroudi, Fouad Dabboussi, Bassel Ismail, Rayane Salma, Marwan Osman and Khaled El Omari

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040348 - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Infectious diseases, the second leading cause of death worldwide, have traditionally been treated with antimicrobials. However, the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms has driven the need for alternative therapies. This study aimed to assess the antibacterial efficacy of Capparis spinosa crude extracts and five [...] Read more.

Infectious diseases, the second leading cause of death worldwide, have traditionally been treated with antimicrobials. However, the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms has driven the need for alternative therapies. This study aimed to assess the antibacterial efficacy of Capparis spinosa crude extracts and five essential oils (EOs) derived from Salvia officinalis, Eucalyptus globulus, Micromeria barbata, Origanum vulgare, and Juniperus excelsa. The EOs were extracted using hydro-distillation, and C. spinosa extracts were obtained using ethanol and acetone solvents. Microdilution assays revealed that O. vulgare EO exhibited the strongest activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Brucella melitensis, while C. spinosa demonstrated significant antibacterial effects against L. monocytogenes and notable inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The combination of EOs with antibiotics, including M. barbata, J. excelsa, S. officinalis, and E. globulus, enhanced the efficacy of the antibiotics against recalcitrant bacterial strains. The synergistic effects were evaluated through Fractional Inhibitory Concentration Index (FICI) analysis. These findings confirm that the antibacterial efficacy observed in the tested EOs, especially when used in synergy with antibiotics, offers a promising therapeutic strategy to combat antimicrobial resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3903 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiparametric Immune Profiles and Their Potential Role in HIV-1 Disease Progression and Treatment

by Junwei Su, Junjie Zhang, Qianying Wang, Xiaojing Liu, Shuo Wang, Yuhua Ruan and Dan Li

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040347 - 4 Apr 2025

Abstract

Backgrounds: The rapid initiation of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) can control HIV-1 viremia and stabilize the long-term health of people living with HIV-1 (PLWH). Despite this, individuals who are diagnosed late and exhibit poor therapeutic efficacy still pose a great challenge to [...] Read more.

Backgrounds: The rapid initiation of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) can control HIV-1 viremia and stabilize the long-term health of people living with HIV-1 (PLWH). Despite this, individuals who are diagnosed late and exhibit poor therapeutic efficacy still pose a great challenge to global HIV management. To address this, we conducted comprehensive multiparametric immune profiling and analyzed its association with disease progression and therapeutic efficacy. Methods: Multicolor flow cytometry was used to characterize the circulating immune cell composition and cellular phenotypes in 40 treatment-naive individuals (16 chronic, 24 newly diagnosed), 26 HAART-treated individuals, and 18 healthy controls. Comparative analyses of T cell subsets, immune activation markers, and viral load signatures were performed, followed by network construction. We carried out principal component analysis and displayed the data by dimensionality reduction. Results: Persistent immune activation, dysregulated regulatory immunity, and aberrant memory differentiation markers were identified in T cells of HIV-1-infected individuals and were associated with disease progression. Additionally, HAART-treated patients which did not fully restore CD4 T cells exhibited higher levels of activated markers, suggesting possible biomarkers of therapeutic efficacy. Conclusions: This study describes changes in immune cell profiles throughout HIV-1 disease progression and explores suitable laboratory predictors for future clinical and therapeutic settings by monitoring pathological immune cell events. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 261 KiB

Open AccessReview

Weathering the Storm: How Age and Biologics Influence the COVID-19 Cytokine Surge

by Corine Astroth, Karishma S. Shah, Sudhanshu Agrawal and Anshu Agrawal

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040346 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

SARS-CoV-2, first identified in December 2019, caused a global pandemic, resulting in over 6.8 million deaths by March 2023. The elderly, or individuals over 65, accounted for the majority of COVID-19 deaths, with 81% of fatalities in the US in 2020 occurring in [...] Read more.

SARS-CoV-2, first identified in December 2019, caused a global pandemic, resulting in over 6.8 million deaths by March 2023. The elderly, or individuals over 65, accounted for the majority of COVID-19 deaths, with 81% of fatalities in the US in 2020 occurring in this group. Beyond mortality, aging populations are also at higher risk of long-term cardiovascular complications and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Although these outcomes may be influenced by comorbidities common in the elderly, age has been found to be a standalone risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection. Therefore, investigating age-related factors in COVID-19 outcomes is crucial in protecting this vulnerable group. Of particular interest is the cytokine storm phenomenon, an excessive inflammatory response that contributes to severe COVID-19 symptoms, including ARDS and cardiovascular damage. Elevated levels of multiple cytokines are common in severe cases of COVID-19. We propose that changes that occur to cytokine profiles as we age may contribute to these aberrant inflammatory responses. This review specifically explored the interleukin class cytokines IL-1, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-23 and considered the potential of biologics targeting these cytokines to alleviate severe outcomes in both COVID-19 and aging individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

19 pages, 1749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of the Coriolis µ Air Sampling Device for Fungal Contamination Analysis of Indoor Air: A Case Study

by Mohamad Al Hallak, Thomas Verdier, Alexandra Bertron, Myriam Mercade, Pascale Lepercq, Christine Roques and Jean-Denis Bailly

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040345 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Molds are frequent indoor contaminants, where they can colonize many materials. The subsequent aerosolization of fungal spores from moldy surfaces can strongly impact indoor air quality and the health of occupants. The investigation of fungal contamination of habitations is a key point in [...] Read more.

Molds are frequent indoor contaminants, where they can colonize many materials. The subsequent aerosolization of fungal spores from moldy surfaces can strongly impact indoor air quality and the health of occupants. The investigation of fungal contamination of habitations is a key point in evaluating sanitary risks and understanding the relationship that may exist between the fungal presence on surfaces and air contamination. However, to date there is no “gold standard” of sampling indoor air for such investigations. Among various air sampling methods, impingement can be used for capturing fungal spores, as it enables real-time sampling and preserves analytical follow-up. Its efficiency varies depending on several factors, such as spore hydrophobicity, sampling conditions, etc. Sampling devices may also impact the results, with recovery rates sometimes lower than filtration-based methods. The Coriolis µ air sampler, an impingement-based device, utilizes centrifugal force to concentrate airborne particles into a liquid medium, offering flexibility for molecular analysis. Several studies have used this device for air sampling, demonstrating its application in detecting pollen, fungal spores, bacteria, and viruses, but it is most often used in laboratory conditions. The present case study, conducted in a moldy house, aims to investigate the efficiency of this device in sampling fungal spores for DNA analysis in indoor environments. The results obtained suggest that the use of this device requires an optimized methodology to enhance its efficiency and reliability in bioaerosol research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Factors Associated with the Seroprevalence of Leptospirosis in Small Ruminants from a Semi-Arid Region of Mexico

by Jesús Francisco Chávez-Sánchez, Lucio Galaviz-Silva, Zinnia Judith Molina-Garza, Pablo Zapata-Benavides, Sibilina Cedillo-Rosales, Joel Horacio Elizondo-Luévano, Miroslava Kačániová and Ramiro Ávalos-Ramírez

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040344 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Leptospirosis is one of the world’s major neglected tropical zoonotic diseases (NTZDs), implicated in animal health and welfare with economic consequences for livestock production. This study aims to estimate the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. and identify potential risk factors in small ruminant herds. [...] Read more.

Leptospirosis is one of the world’s major neglected tropical zoonotic diseases (NTZDs), implicated in animal health and welfare with economic consequences for livestock production. This study aims to estimate the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. and identify potential risk factors in small ruminant herds. This epidemiological cross-sectional study was conducted in Nuevo León, a semi-arid region of Mexico. A total of 389 blood samples from goats and 385 from sheep older than eight months were randomly collected from 128 herds. Anti-Leptospira antibodies were detected using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), and univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine their association with leptospirosis infection. The overall prevalence was 13.5% (105/774), with 14.4% (56/389) in goats and 12.7% (49/385) in sheep. Sejroe was the most predominant serogroup. The main risk factors in sheep were contact with domestic cattle, ≥100 animals per herd, congenital abnormalities, contact with feral pigs, meat production system, absence of veterinary care, and abortions with odds ratios (OR) between 1.7 and 4.1. In goats, the main risk factors included lack of quarantine measures, contact with feral pigs, absence of veterinary care, and abortions where the OR ranged from 1.7 to 3.3. These findings indicate that Leptospira spp. is present in small ruminant herds. This is the first study aimed at understanding leptospirosis epidemiology in the northeastern region of Mexico, as goats and sheep may act as potential reservoirs. Continuous monitoring of Leptospira infections is imperative, as well as developing educational initiatives for farmers to implement biosecurity and prevention measures to prevent infections within herds and protect public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

11 pages, 1227 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Double Trouble on the Lower Leg—Unique Human Coinfection with Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis Without Liver Involvement

by David Beck, Mirjana Balen Topić, Klaudija Višković, Neven Papić, Rado Žic, Mario Sviben, Tomislav Meštrović, Adrijana Baković Kovačević and Relja Beck

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040343 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

The tapeworms Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis cause two different clinical manifestations in humans: cystic echinococcosis (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE), respectively. Both forms of echinococcosis manifest primarily in the liver, while other organs or tissues are less frequently affected. Simultaneous occurrence of [...] Read more.

The tapeworms Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis cause two different clinical manifestations in humans: cystic echinococcosis (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE), respectively. Both forms of echinococcosis manifest primarily in the liver, while other organs or tissues are less frequently affected. Simultaneous occurrence of CE and AE is extremely rare, and all previously reported patients exhibited affected livers, while simultaneous infection without liver involvement has not yet been described. Herein, we present an exclusively extrahepatic E. granulosus and E. multilocularis coinfection localized between the calf muscles of a patient. Due to progressive painful local swelling, an abscess was suspected, but there was no improvement after the administration of multiple courses of antibiotics. When imaging diagnostics suggested a parasitic origin of the two identified cystic lesions, positive serology for both species indicated a dual infection. Albendazole therapy was started, and extensive surgical excision was performed. Both species were confirmed using PCR and sequencing from intraoperative samples. The current case shows that coinfection without liver involvement can occur, even in patients from low-incidence regions, which should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with unusual clinical presentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Biodiversity of Parasites in Humans, Wild and Domestic Animals)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunogenicity of Trypanosoma cruzi Multi-Epitope Recombinant Protein as an Antigen Candidate for Chagas Disease Vaccine in Humans

by Christian F. Teh-Poot, Andrea Alfaro-Chacón, Landy M. Pech-Pisté, Miguel E. Rosado-Vallado, Oluwatoyin Ajibola Asojo, Liliana E. Villanueva-Lizama, Eric Dumonteil and Julio Vladimir Cruz-Chan

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040342 - 3 Apr 2025

Abstract

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is the most significant neglected tropical disease affecting individuals in the Americas. Currently, available drugs, such as nifurtimox and benznidazole (BZN), are both toxic and ineffective in the chronic phase of [...] Read more.

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is the most significant neglected tropical disease affecting individuals in the Americas. Currently, available drugs, such as nifurtimox and benznidazole (BZN), are both toxic and ineffective in the chronic phase of the disease. A promising alternative is the development of a Chagas disease vaccine, although this effort is hampered by the complexity of the parasite and HLA polymorphisms. In addition, the activation of epitope-specific CD8⁺ T cells is critical to conferring a robust cell-mediated immune response and protection by producing IFN-γ and perforin. Thus, the antigen (s) for the development of a Chagas vaccine or immunotherapy must include CD8⁺ T cell epitopes. In this study, we aimed to develop a multi-epitope recombinant protein as a novel human vaccine for Chagas disease. Sixteen database programs were used to predict de novo 40 potential epitopes for the HLA-A*02:01 allele. Nine out of the 40 predicted epitopes were able to elicit IFN-γ production in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs) from Chagas patients. Molecular docking revealed a good binding affinity among the epitopes with diverse HLA molecules. Therefore, a recombinant multi-epitope protein including these nine T. cruzi CD8⁺ epitopes was expressed and demonstrated to recall an antigen-specific immune response in ex-vivo assays using PBMCs from Chagas patients with the HLA-A*02 allele. These findings support the development of this multi-epitope protein as a promising candidate human vaccine against Chagas disease. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 925 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Blastocystis spp. Infection in Kidney Transplant Recipient

by Justyna Kaczmarek, Małgorzata Marchelek-Myśliwiec, Danuta Kosik-Bogacka, Joanna Korycińska, Małgorzata Lepczyńska, Grażyna Dutkiewicz and Joanna Kabat-Koperska

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040341 - 1 Apr 2025

Abstract

The Blastocystis sp. is a common enteric parasite found in humans and various animals. Blastocystis spp. infections may be asymptomatic or symptomatic, with gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, or anorexia. The disease leading to symptoms is [...] Read more.

The Blastocystis sp. is a common enteric parasite found in humans and various animals. Blastocystis spp. infections may be asymptomatic or symptomatic, with gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, or anorexia. The disease leading to symptoms is usually observed in participants with immune deficiency. We report the case of weight loss and diarrhea in a Blastocystis sp. infection in a 64-year-old renal transplant recipient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2 pages, 121 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

On the Pivotal Role of Veterinarians in the Fight Against Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus, COVID-19 and Future Pandemics

by Giovanni Di Guardo

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040340 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

An interesting article recently published in Science highlights the actions, the strategies and the tools through which the potential emergence of a new pandemic caused by the avian influenza A (H5N1) virus could be efficiently counteracted [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Pathogens)

17 pages, 2518 KiB

Open AccessReview

Adipose Tissue in Chagas Disease: A Neglected Component of Pathogenesis

by Vitória França dos Santos Pessoa, Mariana Hecht, Nadjar Nitz and Luciana Hagström

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040339 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Chagas disease (CD), caused by the protozoan T. cruzi, is a serious public health issue with high morbidity and mortality rates. Approximately 7 million people are infected, mostly in Latin America. The pathogenesis is multifactorial and poorly elucidated, particularly regarding the role [...] Read more.

Chagas disease (CD), caused by the protozoan T. cruzi, is a serious public health issue with high morbidity and mortality rates. Approximately 7 million people are infected, mostly in Latin America. The pathogenesis is multifactorial and poorly elucidated, particularly regarding the role of adipose tissue (AT). This review aims to explore the complex relationship between T. cruzi and AT, focusing on the possible role of this tissue in CD, as well as to explore the impact of diet on the progression of the disease. T. cruzi infects adipocytes, affecting their function. Chronic infection alters adipose physiology, contributing to systemic inflammation and metabolic disturbances. Adipokines are dysregulated, while markers of inflammation and oxidative stress increase within AT during CD. Additionally, the immune response and clinical aspects of CD may be influenced by the host’s diet. High-fat diets (HFDs) impact parasite burden and cardiac pathology in murine models. The complex interaction among T. cruzi infection, AT dysfunction, and dietary factors underscore the complexity of CD pathogenesis. Despite accumulating evidence suggesting the role of AT in CD, further research is needed to elucidate its clinical implications. Understanding the bidirectional relationship between AT and T. cruzi infection may offer insights into disease progression and potential therapeutic targets, highlighting the importance of considering adipose physiology in CD management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chagas Disease: Celebrating the 115th Anniversary of the Discovery of Trypanosoma cruzi)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vector-Borne Bacteria Detected in Ticks, Mites and Flies Parasitizing Bats in the State of Rondônia, Brazilian Amazon

by Leormando Fortunato Dornelas Júnior, Irineu Norberto Cunha, Felipe Rodrigues Jorge, Gustavo Graciolli, Ricardo Bassini-Silva, Fernando de Castro Jacinavicius, Maria Carolina A. Serpa, Marcelo Bahia Labruna, Felipe Arley Costa Pessoa and Luís Marcelo Aranha Camargo

Pathogens 2025, 14(4), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14040338 - 31 Mar 2025

Abstract

Bats (Chiroptera) are among the most diverse and geographically dispersed mammals. They are of great importance to the ecosystem, as pollinators, seed dispersers and pest controllers, in addition to being hosts to several parasitic arthropods, including ticks, mites, lice, fleas and flies. Their [...] Read more.

Bats (Chiroptera) are among the most diverse and geographically dispersed mammals. They are of great importance to the ecosystem, as pollinators, seed dispersers and pest controllers, in addition to being hosts to several parasitic arthropods, including ticks, mites, lice, fleas and flies. Their diet includes the tissue and blood or other body fluids of bats. Bats are reservoirs of several disease-causing agents, many of them pathogenic to humans, such as bacteria, as well as protozoa, viruses and fungi. This study was conducted in Monte Negro, Rondônia, Brazil and the occurrence of parasitic arthropods in bats was evaluated, as well as a screening of bacteria that these ectoparasites can carry. Through a total of 69 nocturnal captures, 217 chiropterans were sampled, representing 23 species and six families. A total of 592 specimens of parasitic arthropods (ticks, mites and flies) were collected from these bats (9% dipterans, 59% ticks and 32% mites). Bartonella spp. were found in two species of bat flies (Trichobius joblingi and Strebla mirabilis) in peri-urban and forest areas with an infection rate of 62% and 38%, respectively. We report for the first time in Rondônia the argasid tick Ornithodoros hasei and its infection by a spotted fever group bacterium ‘Candidatus Rickettsia wissemanii’ in a peri-urban area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic Pathogens in the Tropics: From the Forest to the Cities)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Description

Pathogens

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Topical Collections

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI